Unscripted projects, such as documentaries, reality television, and the news still require some “writing.” Documentary writing is a little different from the other forms of script writing that we’ve discussed because it’s usually more of a journalistic type of writing. There are two approaches to documentary production:
Inductive, where you spend as much time as you need (or can afford) shooting your subject, and then cut that source footage into a finished product.
Deductive, where you write a scripted piece and then go out and shoot the footage you need to support that script. In an inductive documentary, the shooting and editing is, in a sense, the writing process. During shooting, you’ll capture all of the raw material that you will then pare down and organize into a finished edited piece. In a deductive documentary, the production process is more akin to that of scripted projects. There’s no right or wrong way to work, although there are advantages and pitfalls to each approach. An inductive process is usually better for covering an event, person, or place. You’ll want to keep an open mind and not have any preconceived notions about your subject, lest you blind yourself to good footage or important events. But even if you’re committed to being open-minded, you’ll still benefit from planning and anticipating the problems and challenges of your shoot by creating a shot list or simply having an idea of what you need to capture in your head. (For example, “Joe admits to Jenna that he is moving to Las Vegas.”) Then ask yourself before you wrap that day if you feel you achieved what you wanted. Later, when you get back to the editing room, you’ll look at your footage and try to see what kind of story is there. Often, you’ll be surprised to find out that the final story is very different than what you thought it was going to be. In the deductive process, you’ll do your research and learning at your writing desk. Once you’ve finished writing, you’ll then try to find footage that illustrates your text. Though shooting will occasionally lead you to revise your script and make changes on the fly, in general your final project will probably end up fairly close to what you scripted.
Writing for Television
Television has come into its own in the past decade. Thanks to smart, creative shows like The Sopranos, Lost,andMad Men,to name only a few, TV is no longer the poor stepchild of feature filmmaking. TV series can have a depth and breadth that is impossible to achieve in a feature-length film. They have room to explore many characters and to develop multiple storylines to create the “arc” of a season so that there is a story that occurs within each episode, and then a greater story that occurs over the season, and then, with longer running shows, a narrative that occurs over the entire run of the series. Scripted teleplays in the United States fall into two basic categories: hour-long and half-hour. It used to be that hour-long television shows were always dramas and half-hour shows were always sitcoms, but today those strict delimitations are increasingly blurred. Nurse Jackieis a half-hour show that contains as much drama as comedy, while True Blood is an hour-long show that offers much comedy in addition to its gothic thriller elements. Formats for TV shows can vary a lot, even within the same genre. The following short list is a good place to start, but if you are writing for a show that already exists, you should do some research and make sure that you are using the right format. nHour-long dramasusually have four acts, not including teases, the montages of clips from the previous or upcoming episode(s) that usually open and close a TV show. Assuming a minute per page, the script should be about 40 pages long. nHalf-hour comediesusually have three acts, not including teases, and are about 20 pages long. Other than varying lengths, teleplays use formatting and rules similar to movie screenplays.
Hour-long dramasusually have four acts, not including teases, the montages of clips from the previous or upcoming episode(s) that usually open and close a TV show. Assuming a minute per page, the script should be about 40 pages long.
Half-hour comediesusually have three acts, not including teases, and are about 20 pages long. Other than varying lengths, teleplays use formatting and rules similar to movie screenplays.
Hour-long dramasusually have four acts, not including teases, the montages of clips from the previous or upcoming episode(s) that usually open and close a TV show. Assuming a minute per page, the script should be about 40 pages long.
Half-hour comediesusually have three acts, not including teases, and are about 20 pages long. Other than varying lengths, teleplays use formatting and rules similar to movie screenplays.
Script and Screenplay Format
Formatting Your Script
Traditional movie screenplays have a very specific format that has been designed and refined to convey much more than just dialogue and scene descriptions. Screenplay format makes it easy to quickly judge budget and scheduling concerns in a script. No matter what type of project you’re working on, writing screenplays in this format will make your production job much easier.
Screenplay Format
One of the biggest advantages of screenplay format is that it makes it easier to determine the length and pacing of your script. If you follow standard screenplay margins and layouts, your script will average one minute of screen time per page. In reality, there is a lot of variation, of course. A onepage description of an epic sea battle might actually take five minutes of screen time, while a pageof witty banter might fly by in 20 seconds. On average, the one-page-per-minute rule is a good guideline to follow because over the entire length of the screenplay, it will be about right. If you follow traditional screenplay format, your script will be divided into scenes delineated by sluglines. A slug tells whether the following scene is INTerior or EXTerior, the location of the scene, and whether the scene takes place during the day or night. For example: INT. MAD SCIENTIST’S PANTRY — NIGHT Sluglines make it easy to count and reorder your scenes, and make it simple for a producer to quickly arrive at an approximation of cost. If your script has a lot of EXT scenes at NIGHT, then it’s going to be more expensive (lights, location shots, and overtime add up quickly). Similarly, if your slugs all run along the lines of: EXT. UPPER ATMOSPHERE OF MARS — NIGHT then it’s pretty obvious that your script is effects-heavy and, therefore, expensive.
Standard screenplay format has a number of other conventions as well. For example, if a scene continues from one page to the next, then “CONTINUED” is placed at the bottom of the first page. Similarly, if a character’s dialogue jumps to another page, then “MORE” is placed below the flowing dialogue. Through the years, screenplay conventions have been refined and standardized as a way of making script breakdown, budgeting, and scheduling much simpler. It’s safe to say that if your screenplay is not formatted according to standard conventions, no one in the film industry will read it. A poorly formatted screenplay is an instant indication of a very “green” screenwriter.
Multi-Column Formats If you’re writing a script for a news, industrial, educational, corporate presentation, or advertising production, then you’ll most likely want to use a multi-column, A/V script format. (A/Vis short for audio/video). Much simpler than screenplay format, A/V formats are ideal for planning and scripting live broadcasts, short subjects, and other multi-camera, multi-source.
A whole range of writing software exists that not only makes it easy to render your scripts in standard screenplay format, but also provides some valuable tools for editing and restructuring your script. Programs such as Final Draft, Celtz, and Final Draft A/V format your scripts as you write (Figure 2.3). Anyone who has tried to add all the MOREs and CONTINUEDs manually will find this one feature worth the investment. In addition to formatting, Final Draft provides a lot of automation. Character names can be entered by simply typing the first few letters of a name, and the program does a very good job of anticipating what the next character’s name will be, making it simple to type back-and-forth dialogue. Final Draft provides other utilities, including a Scene Navigator that lets you see your scenes as a series of index cards that can be easily rearranged . Celtz is free and includes storyboarding and other movie project management tools. It is also possible to create your own template in Microsoft Word.
Traditional movie screenplays have a very specific format that has been designed and refined to convey much more than just dialogue and scene descriptions. Screenplay format makes it easy to quickly judge budget and scheduling concerns in a script. No matter what type of project you’re working on, writing screenplays in this format will make your production job much easier.
Screenplay Format
One of the biggest advantages of screenplay format is that it makes it easier to determine the length and pacing of your script. If you follow standard screenplay margins and layouts, your script will average one minute of screen time per page. In reality, there is a lot of variation, of course. A onepage description of an epic sea battle might actually take five minutes of screen time, while a pageof witty banter might fly by in 20 seconds. On average, the one-page-per-minute rule is a good guideline to follow because over the entire length of the screenplay, it will be about right. If you follow traditional screenplay format, your script will be divided into scenes delineated by sluglines. A slug tells whether the following scene is INTerior or EXTerior, the location of the scene, and whether the scene takes place during the day or night. For example: INT. MAD SCIENTIST’S PANTRY — NIGHT Sluglines make it easy to count and reorder your scenes, and make it simple for a producer to quickly arrive at an approximation of cost. If your script has a lot of EXT scenes at NIGHT, then it’s going to be more expensive (lights, location shots, and overtime add up quickly). Similarly, if your slugs all run along the lines of: EXT. UPPER ATMOSPHERE OF MARS — NIGHT then it’s pretty obvious that your script is effects-heavy and, therefore, expensive.
Standard screenplay format has a number of other conventions as well. For example, if a scene continues from one page to the next, then “CONTINUED” is placed at the bottom of the first page. Similarly, if a character’s dialogue jumps to another page, then “MORE” is placed below the flowing dialogue. Through the years, screenplay conventions have been refined and standardized as a way of making script breakdown, budgeting, and scheduling much simpler. It’s safe to say that if your screenplay is not formatted according to standard conventions, no one in the film industry will read it. A poorly formatted screenplay is an instant indication of a very “green” screenwriter.
Multi-Column Formats If you’re writing a script for a news, industrial, educational, corporate presentation, or advertising production, then you’ll most likely want to use a multi-column, A/V script format. (A/Vis short for audio/video). Much simpler than screenplay format, A/V formats are ideal for planning and scripting live broadcasts, short subjects, and other multi-camera, multi-source.
A whole range of writing software exists that not only makes it easy to render your scripts in standard screenplay format, but also provides some valuable tools for editing and restructuring your script. Programs such as Final Draft, Celtz, and Final Draft A/V format your scripts as you write (Figure 2.3). Anyone who has tried to add all the MOREs and CONTINUEDs manually will find this one feature worth the investment. In addition to formatting, Final Draft provides a lot of automation. Character names can be entered by simply typing the first few letters of a name, and the program does a very good job of anticipating what the next character’s name will be, making it simple to type back-and-forth dialogue. Final Draft provides other utilities, including a Scene Navigator that lets you see your scenes as a series of index cards that can be easily rearranged . Celtz is free and includes storyboarding and other movie project management tools. It is also possible to create your own template in Microsoft Word.
Three-Act Structure
Hollywood movies use a very well defined, three-act structure. In fact, it’s so well defined, you can usually set your watch to it.
Act I: The beginning.Wherein the main character is introduced, along with his or her nemesis, and the supporting cast. The main character’s “problem” is also introduced. This section usually takes 20 to 30 minutes.
Act II: The middle.The main thing that happens in Act II is that the character’s problem is complicated. This is the bulk of the movie, and any subplots are usually introduced and solved here. Very rarely are new characters introduced in this act. Halfway through the act—that is, in the exact middle of the movie—the main character’s luck will change, and things will start working out in his or her favor. By the end of the second act, the solution to the problem will be clear. This act is usually 40 to 50 minutes long.
Act III: The end. In this act, the main character’s problem is solved. This usually takes about 20 minutes.
Yet another way to define this structure is: Act I: Introduce the hero; Act II: Torture the hero; Act III: Save the hero.
Unlike a stage play, there is never a clear separation of acts presented in a movie. The actual change might be a simple cut from one scene to another, or the scene might just barrel on ahead into the new act. It’s not important that the audience knowswhere the act breaks are, but that doesn’t mean that they aren’t there.
You don’t have to follow this structure, and many movies don’t. However, it is a fairly simple, effective way of ensuring a compelling story that “moves.”
Act I: The beginning.Wherein the main character is introduced, along with his or her nemesis, and the supporting cast. The main character’s “problem” is also introduced. This section usually takes 20 to 30 minutes.
Act II: The middle.The main thing that happens in Act II is that the character’s problem is complicated. This is the bulk of the movie, and any subplots are usually introduced and solved here. Very rarely are new characters introduced in this act. Halfway through the act—that is, in the exact middle of the movie—the main character’s luck will change, and things will start working out in his or her favor. By the end of the second act, the solution to the problem will be clear. This act is usually 40 to 50 minutes long.
Act III: The end. In this act, the main character’s problem is solved. This usually takes about 20 minutes.
Yet another way to define this structure is: Act I: Introduce the hero; Act II: Torture the hero; Act III: Save the hero.
Unlike a stage play, there is never a clear separation of acts presented in a movie. The actual change might be a simple cut from one scene to another, or the scene might just barrel on ahead into the new act. It’s not important that the audience knowswhere the act breaks are, but that doesn’t mean that they aren’t there.
You don’t have to follow this structure, and many movies don’t. However, it is a fairly simple, effective way of ensuring a compelling story that “moves.”
Structure
In the preceding example, we took a pretty boring chain of events and turned them into a story by giving our main character a goal. However, we did something else as well: we gave the story a structure. If you look at the second story, you’ll see that it has a very definite beginning, middle, and end.In the beginning, we learn that Mary has a problem: she’s stir crazy. In the middle, we see her go to a store, which is normally comforting, but this doesn’t solve her problem. Perhaps her problem is worse than she realized. In the end, she finally finds a comfortable place to be and is no longer stir
crazy. Learning this simple structure will do more than anything else to help you tell better stories and make better movies. Not only will you be able to create movies that are more interesting to your audience, but by following this structure, you’ll also have an easier time finding your way through the writing, shooting, and editing of your movie. This beginning/middle/end structure is commonly referred to as the three-act structure,and it is the basis for all Hollywood movies. If “beginning, middle, and end” is too abstract, think of the three sections as setup, complication, andpayoff.In our story about Mary, the setup was that she was stir crazy, the complication was that her usual way of calming down didn’t work, and the payoff was that she finally found peace. Failure to deliver on any of these parts results in very predictable audience reactions. Projects that have a weak first act (the setup) are usually perceived as boring; projects with a weak second act (the complication) are usually seen to be lacking in substance; and projects with a weak third act (the payoff) are typically regarded as pointless. This beginning/middle/end structure can be applied to any type of production. Even if you’re doing a simple corporate training video that is nothing more than a talking head, what that head says should have a discernible structure. Remember, a three-act structure is designed to keep your audience engaged and compelled.
crazy. Learning this simple structure will do more than anything else to help you tell better stories and make better movies. Not only will you be able to create movies that are more interesting to your audience, but by following this structure, you’ll also have an easier time finding your way through the writing, shooting, and editing of your movie. This beginning/middle/end structure is commonly referred to as the three-act structure,and it is the basis for all Hollywood movies. If “beginning, middle, and end” is too abstract, think of the three sections as setup, complication, andpayoff.In our story about Mary, the setup was that she was stir crazy, the complication was that her usual way of calming down didn’t work, and the payoff was that she finally found peace. Failure to deliver on any of these parts results in very predictable audience reactions. Projects that have a weak first act (the setup) are usually perceived as boring; projects with a weak second act (the complication) are usually seen to be lacking in substance; and projects with a weak third act (the payoff) are typically regarded as pointless. This beginning/middle/end structure can be applied to any type of production. Even if you’re doing a simple corporate training video that is nothing more than a talking head, what that head says should have a discernible structure. Remember, a three-act structure is designed to keep your audience engaged and compelled.
Finding a Story
We’re going to spend a lot of time talking about “story,” so let’s get some basic concepts out of the way. Consider the following: Mary had decided to go for a walk, so she called her dog, Spot, got his leash, and went outside. She walked down the sidewalk and crossed the street in front of the small, neighborhood grocery store. She liked the store and was always happy to see the “regulars” buying their food. She kept walking until she got to the park. As always, the park was filled with dogs that were running, and jumping, and catching Frisbees. Both she and Spot really liked it in the park. Not much of a story, huh? In fact, Mary’s story isn’t really a “story” at all; it’s just a series of events. That series of events could continue for pages and pages, covering all of the events that happened during Mary’s day. In the end, we would simply have a much longer, boring description of a bunch of events. “Maybe Mary is just a boring person,” you might be thinking. Certainly, subject matter has a lot to do with making a story interesting. If Mary was an international super-spy instead of a woman walking her dog, the story might automatically be more interesting. However, even with the seemingly boring events of Mary’s life, it is possible to tell a more compelling story: Mary was going stir crazy. She’d been stuck in the house all day long. and it was starting to get to her. She called her dog, Spot, put on his leash, and went outside. She crossed the street in front of her neighborhood grocery store. She liked the store and always felt comfortable there. But now, when she looked in and saw the lines of people loaded down with heaps of cans and boxes, she just felt more stir crazy. She walked on until she finally reached the park, and there, at last, she was able to relax. This story might not be Shakespeare, but it does feel more like a story than a simple chain of events. However, both stories contain exactly the same series of events. Nothing new happens in the second story—it’s still just a tale of a woman going for a walk with her dog—but in the second story Mary has a goal: she’s stir crazy, and she needs to relax. This goal is stated in the very first sentence. The simple addition of a goal provides a structure and direction to the tale, transforming it from a chain of events into a story. Why does this difference matter? Because the goal we created is not just for Mary. By stating it, we’ve also given the reader a goal—something to find out, and a reason to continue listening. Story First No matter what type of production you’re planning, your first writing task is to decide what your story is about. Industrial and corporate presentations, music videos, documentaries, marketing or advertising pieces—they all need to have clear, well-defined stories even if the story is as simple as the one about Mary and her dog.
Screenwriting
No doubt, at some point in your life you’ve read a book that’s been made into a movie. And, no doubt, you’ve probably walked out of the movie adaptation thinking “why did they change that part?” or “why did they leave that other part out?” It’s easy to simply think that the screenwriter did a bad job, and certainly moviemakers don’t always share your own take on the emotional tone of a particular book. More often than not, though, movie adaptations are very different from their source books because cinema and prose are simply very different art forms. To think that a book can be directly translated into a movie shows an ignorance of the particular narrative, pacing, and content differences that exist between these two forms. Someone once said, “Trying to talk about music is like trying to dance about architecture.” Trying to make a straight translation from written text to moving images is almost as difficult. The point is that screenwriting is a very particular type of writing, and as such, it demands a good amount of study and practice. No amount of production can save a poorly written script, so it’s important to spend the time building a sturdy screenplay. No matter what type of project you’re shooting—feature film, TV show, documentary, or corporate video—you still need to understand the basic concepts of good storytelling and strong screenwriting.
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